
\section{Reinforcement Learning for LLM Reasoning}
So far, our discussion has mainly focused on various aspects of using and improving RL for training LLMs. The methods mentioned can be easily adapted to a wild of scenarios where the correctness of an output can be examined by checking whether the desired result is included. For example, in the task of calculating a mathematical expression, a reward model can provide positive feedback if the answer is correct and negative feedback if the answer is wrong. However, in many problems that require complex reasoning, simply examining the correctness of the final answer is insufficient for learning. Imagine a student who is only given the final answer to a challenging math problem. Knowing whether the final answer is right or wrong does not help the student figure out where they went wrong and how to calculate the correct answer. A better approach would be to guide the student with a step-by-step breakdown of the problem-solving process and encourage understanding of the underlying concepts and logic behind these steps. To address this, researchers also explore the potential of RL to teach LLMs not just to generate correct answers but to develop and present coherent, step-by-step reasoning that aligns with human cognitive processes. In this regard, RL has previously demonstrated its effectiveness in training neural networks for complex planning and reasoning within game environments, as evidenced by notable successes such as AlphaGo \citep{silver-etal:2016mastering} and AlphaStar \citep{vinyals-rtal:2019grandmaster}. Given these advancements and the inherently interactive nature of problem-solving, it is also natural to consider the application of RL to LLM reasoning. 

In this section, we delve deeper into the application of RL to enhance the reasoning capabilities of the LLM, a topic that has recently garnered significant attention. We begin by giving a general introduction to test-time scaling that fully unleashes the reasoning potential of LLMs, including best-of-$N$ sampling, step-by-step verification, and Monte Carlo Tree Search. We then discuss two critical issues: how to scale RL effectively, and how to iterate the RL process to enhance the reasoning capabilities of LLMs. Note that the following methods are primarily illustrated through the mathematical reasoning problem, they are applicable to a broad range of decision-making problems.

\subsection{Test-time Scaling}
\label{sec:tts}
Initially, we review the fundamental objective of RL: to maximize the rewards obtained during output generation. This goal has been extensively achieved through various training-time optimization techniques, such as policy gradient or PPO algorithms. Beyond training, recent research has illuminated the benefits of scaling up test-time computation, a process also known as test-time scaling, which can significantly enhance the maximization of rewards, especially in the reasoning task. In a practical implementation, one simple approach to achieve test-time scaling is the use of prompting techniques. For example, appending the phrase ``Let's think step-by-step.'' to the input can effectively stimulate the LLM to engage in a more detailed reasoning process during the generation. While this approach can improve reasoning accuracy, it often leads to suboptimal performance because the model is not inherently trained to understand the most beneficial reasoning processes. To address this issue, we can perform the test-time scaling with guidance from a reward model, as discussed in the following subsections.

\subsubsection{Best-of-N Sampling}
\label{sec:BoN-sampling}
\begin{figure*}[!t]
    \centering
    \input{section5/Figures/figure-bon-sampling}
    \caption{
    Best-of-n sampling. Given an input, multiple candidate outputs are sampled, and a reward model is used to select the best output. A majority vote can also determine the final output in scenarios without a reward model. For example, in this figure, most of the outputs suggest an answer of 290. Therefore, we can consider any one of the outputs resulting in 290 to be the final output.
    }
    \label{fig:bon-sampling}
\end{figure*}

One approach to test-time scaling using a reward model involves sampling multiple reasoning paths given input and then using the reward model to select the best one from $N$ alternative outputs generated by the LLM, called best-of-$N$ sampling (BoN sampling). We can consider BoN sampling a reranking technique. In fact, reranking methods have been a prevalent technique in NLP, particularly in machine translation, where they have been employed for a long time to enhance output quality by selecting the most appropriate translation from a set of candidates. Additionally, this method often functions as a simple model ensemble approach. In such cases, different outputs generated by various models can be reranked according to a specified metric.

As illustrated in Figure \ref{fig:bon-sampling}, in the BoN sampling, we first sample $N$ different outputs $\{\mathbf{y}_{1}, \mathbf{y}_{2}, \cdots, \mathbf{y}_{N}\}$ for the input $\mathbf{x}$:
\begin{eqnarray}
\{\mathbf{y}_1,...,\mathbf{y}_N\} & = & \mathop{\mathrm{argTopN}}_{\mathbf{y}} \left[ \mathrm{Pr}_{\theta}(\mathbf{y}|\mathbf{x}) \right]
\end{eqnarray}

where the $\mathrm{argTopN}$ operation returns the top-$N$ outputs that maximize the function $\Pr(\mathbf{y}|\mathbf{x})$. These outputs can be sampled in various ways, depending on the search algorithm used by the model (e.g., nucleus sampling or beam search). Once the $N$-best output candidates are sampled, the reward model is used to evaluate and select the best one:
\begin{eqnarray}
\mathbf{y}_{\mathrm{best}} & = & \max\{R_{\phi}(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{y}_1),...,R_{\phi}(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{y}_N)\}
\end{eqnarray}

This process not only identifies the output with the highest reward but also makes it a direct evaluation of the effectiveness of the reward model. For example, the agreement between the reward model and human judgments can be assessed by judging whether $\mathbf{y}_{\mathrm{best}}$ matches the best output selected by humans. Given its speed and cost-efficiency compared to more complex evaluation methods such as those used in PPO, this approach is widely used for evaluating the performance of reward models \citep{rafailov:2023direct,gao-etal:2023scaling}. Nevertheless, in scenarios without a reward model, we can also employ the majority vote approach to determine the final output of the reasoning task. The basic steps involve first identifying the answer that most reasoning paths converge upon and then considering any of the outputs leading to this answer as the final output.

It is worth noting that the result of BoN sampling is also influenced by the diversity of the $N$-best list. This is a common issue with most reranking methods. Typically, we wish the $N$-best output candidates to be relatively high quality but sufficiently different from each other. In many text generation systems, the $N$-best outputs are very similar, often differing by just one or two words. The diversity issue is even more challenging in LLMs, as the $N$-best outputs sampled by an LLM can differ in their wordings. Yet, their semantic meanings are often quite similar. In practice, one can adjust the model hyperparameters and/or adopt different LLMs to generate more diverse output candidates for reranking. Nevertheless, as with many practical systems, we need to make a trade-off between selecting high-quality candidates and ensuring sufficient variation in the sampled outputs.

BoN sampling can also be used to train LLMs. A closely related method is rejection sampling. In this method, we first select the ``best'' outputs from the $N$-best lists via the reward model and then take these selected outputs to fine-tune the LLM. In this way, we can introduce human preferences into the training of LLMs via a much simpler approach than PPO. Many LLMs have adopted rejection sampling for fine-tuning \citep{nakano-etal:2021webgpt,touvron-etal:2023llama2}.

\subsubsection{Step-by-step Verification}
\label{sec:step-by-step-verification}

While BoN sampling is effective for scaling test-time computation, it is inefficient because the model must generate the entire reasoning path before evaluating its quality. Addressing this inefficiency, one approach is step-by-step verification, which evaluates the quality of each step while generating a reasoning path\footnote{We typically evaluate each reasoning step from multiple dimensions. A primary consideration is the presence of errors, assessing whether the intermediate step contains any inaccuracies. Furthermore, we evaluate the advantage conferred by the step, which examines the potential of the reasoning step to facilitate superior outcomes in subsequent steps \citep{setlur-etal:2024rewarding}.}. This allows us to identify the potential of a path at intermediate steps early and further reduce computational resources by abandoning unpromising paths. Note that in this approach, traditional reward models, which are designed to evaluate the entire output, are inadequate. Instead, we need to develop a process reward model to evaluate each step in the reasoning path. 

We can collect or generate reasoning paths corresponding to problems from existing datasets to train a process reward model. Human experts then annotate each step in these paths for correctness. These annotations can be used to train LLMs or as rewards in reward modeling directly. However, in practice, richer annotations are often introduced \citep{lightman-etal:2024lets}. In addition to the \textit{correct} and \textit{incorrect} labels, a step can also be labeled as \textit{neutral} to indicate that while the step may be technically correct, it might still be problematic within the overall reasoning process. Additionally, an automatic process annotation framework can be utilized, which relies on generating multiple entire reasoning paths based on the current step and using the accuracy of these paths to serve as the quality annotation of the step \citep{wang-etal:2023math}.

Given a set of step-level annotated reasoning paths and corresponding inputs, we can train a reward model to provide a reward for each step in the reasoning process. The reward model can be treated as a classification model. So its architecture can be an LLM with a Softmax layer stacked on top, akin to the architecture depicted in Figure \ref{fig:reward-model}. Here, consider an reasoning path including $n_{s}$ steps, represented as $\mathbf{y} = \{\bar{\mathbf{y}}_{1},\cdots ,\bar{\mathbf{y}}_{n_{s}}\}$.  At each step $k$, the process reward model takes both the problem description, denoted by $\mathbf{x}$, and the reasoning steps generated so far, denoted by $\bar{\mathbf{y}}$, as inputs. It then outputs a probability distribution over the set of labels ${\text{\textit{correct}}, \text{\textit{incorrect}}}$, or ${\text{\textit{correct}}, \text{\textit{incorrect}}, \text{\textit{neutral}}}$, to evaluate the reasoning at that point. This model can trained by a casual classification loss, e.g., Sigmoid Cross-entropy. Once trained, the reward model can be used to evaluate reasoning paths by assessing the correctness of each step. A simple method to use log-probabilities of classification to define the reward of each reasoning step, for example, the reward of the $k$-th reasoning step can be given by
\begin{eqnarray}
R_{\phi}(\mathbf{x},\bar{\mathbf{y}}_{\le k}) & = &  \mathrm{Pr}_{\phi}(\textit{correct}|\mathbf{x},\bar{\mathbf{y}}_{\le k})
\end{eqnarray}

where $\Pr_{\phi}(\textit{correct}|\mathbf{x},\bar{\mathbf{y}}_{\le k})$ denotes the probability of the \textit{correct} label generated by the reward model. The reward score $R_{\phi}(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{y})$ can then be used to select the best step while generating a reasoning path. Additionally, as discussed in Section \ref{sec:generative-reward-models}, there is the option to train a generative process reward model that further improves this performance on evaluating the reasoning step, also called generative verifier in the literature \citep{zhang-etal:2024generative}. Note that in practice, the process reward model serves not only to provide rewards for test-time scaling but also to train the model using RL, e.g., the rewards from this model can be employed as shaping rewards.

\begin{figure*}[!t]
    \centering
    \input{section5/Figures/figure-step-by-step-with-prm.tex}
    \caption{
    Step-by-step verification with greedy search. This process can be readily extended to beam search by retaining the top steps at each step from all candidate paths for further scaling up test-time computation. As the blue line indicates, the reasoning steps can be refined using verification feedback, such as rewards, to enhance accuracy.
    }
    \label{fig:step-by-step-with-prm}
\end{figure*}

As illustrated in Figure \ref{fig:step-by-step-with-prm}, step-by-step verification can be conducted using a simple greedy search method. Specifically, multiple candidate reasoning steps are sampled at each step, and the process reward model is employed to select the best one. This selected step then serves as the foundation for generating the subsequent step, continuing this process until the entire reasoning path is obtained. In this way, any search method can be applied to improve test-time scaling. For example, we can expand the search space with beam search, retaining multiple promising reasoning steps at each step. Furthermore, the reasoning steps can be refined through the self-refinement technique at each step using verification feedback, such as rewards, to enhance accuracy \citep{yao-etal:2023tree}. 

\subsubsection{Monte Carlo Tree Search}

In this subsection, we discuss the use of Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS), a popular search method in step-by-step verification. In practice, MCTS is not a new method but is well-established across various domains. Notably, it typically serves as an effective alternative to traditional RL methods, particularly in environments characterized by large or intricate state spaces, where conventional RL algorithms may falter. For example, within an RL framework, MCTS can aid in planning by simulating diverse actions to maximize rewards, as demonstrated by its success in complex game environments \citep{silver-etal:2016mastering}. In LLM reasoning, MCTS leverages randomness and structured tree search to probe potential reasoning paths, thereby expanding the search space in an efficient way. More specifically, as illustrated in Figure \ref{fig:monte-carlo-tree-search}, MCTS repeatedly cycles through the following four stages to explore potential reasoning paths:

\begin{figure*}[!t]
    \centering
    \input{section5/Figures/figure-mcts}
    \caption{
    Illustration of step-by-step verification with MCTS. The process consists of four phases: (1) Selection, where the algorithm navigates the decision tree to select the most promising node based on strategies like UCT; (2) Expansion, where new potential nodes are added to the tree for further exploration; (3) Simulation, where each new node is evaluated by simulating possible outcomes (i.e., reasoning paths); and (4) Backpropagation, where the outcomes from the simulations are used to refine node values, such as UCT values, thus enhancing the decision-making for subsequent explorations.  
    }
    \label{fig:monte-carlo-tree-search}
\end{figure*}

\begin{itemize}
    \item \textbf{Selection}.
    This process begins at the root node (i.e., an input), where the algorithm selects promising child nodes (i.e., reasoning steps) based on specific selection strategies, such as the Upper Confidence Bound (UCT). More specifically, at each step $k$, among the sampled candidate reasoning steps, we aim to select the one that maximizes the UCT objective:
    \begin{eqnarray}
        \bar{\mathbf{y}}_{k}^{*} & = & \argmax_{\bar{\mathbf{y}}_{k}} \big(\bar{R}(\bar{\mathbf{y}}_{k}) + c \sqrt{\frac{\ln N_p}{N_{\bar{\mathbf{y}}_{k}}}} \big)
        \label{eq:uct}
    \end{eqnarray}
    
    where $N_p$ denotes the total number of times the parent node has been visited, $N_{\bar{\mathbf{y}}_{k}}$ is the number of visits to the child node $\bar{\mathbf{y}}_{k}$, and $c$ is a constant that balances the trade-off between exploitation of known good paths and exploration of new paths. $\bar{R}(\cdot)$ denotes the reward of a reasoning step. This reward can be static, set by a process reward model, or dynamic, continuously updated based on the delayed rewards obtained from simulations. 
    
    \item \textbf{Expansion}. Once a leaf node (i.e., a newly generated reasoning step based on previously selected steps) is encountered and it does not represent a terminal state of the reasoning process, the algorithm expands this node by adding it as a new child node.  
    
    \item \textbf{Simulation}. The process performs simulations (or rollouts) for each new node added during the expansion stage. These simulated paths help evaluate the effectiveness of the reasoning steps initiated from the node. For example, the final answer obtained from the simulation can be compared with the correct answer to derive a delayed reward.

    \item \textbf{Backpropagation}. The process updates the UCT values of prior nodes using the results of these simulations. Key updates include the visitation counts, $N_p$ and $N_{\bar{\mathbf{y}}_{k}}$ in Eq. (\ref{eq:uct}), reflecting how frequently each node has been explored. Additionally, this stage allows for the incorporation of delayed rewards to adjust the $\bar{R}(\bar{\mathbf{y}}_k)$ values.
\end{itemize}

\subsection{Iterative Reinforcement Learning}

Training LLMs with RL usually follows a two-phase approach: training a pre-trained LLM with SFT and further training with an RL algorithm applied to the SFT LLM. However, using large-scale RL in such a two-phase approach to train LLMs in reasoning may lead to significant knowledge forgetting as the model continuously adjusts to fit the reward model. For example, as mentioned in DeepSeek-R1 \citep{guo:2025deepseek}, directly applying large-scale RL can achieve the desired reasoning outcomes, but often at the cost of reduced readability in the reasoning process. To address these challenges, we can utilize an iterative RL approach to continuously enhance the various capabilities of the LLM. Here we consider DeepSeek-R1 as an example to illustrate how to perform an iterative RL. The idea is to split the RL process into multiple phases, each designed to enhance different capabilities using varied rewards, to develop a robust reasoning model that is able to generate clearer and more comprehensible reasoning paths. Figure \ref{fig:iterative-rl} provides a schematic illustration of the iterative RL process. Here we give a brief outline of each phase involved.

\begin{figure*}[!t]
    \centering
    \input{section5/Figures/figure-iterative-rl}
    \caption{
    Illustration of iterative RL in DeepSeek-R1 \citep{guo:2025deepseek}. This method maintains multi-phase RL to develop a robust reasoning LLM with a GRPO algorithm. Initially, a pre-trained LLM is fine-tuned using a small set of high-quality labeled reasoning data with SFT as a cold start. Then, large-scale RL is applied specifically to enhance reasoning capabilities. After that, the model undergoes reject sampling across multiple tasks to refine output quality. In the final phase, the model is further trained using RL to enhance generalization across various tasks.
    }
    \label{fig:iterative-rl}
\end{figure*}

\begin{itemize}
    \item The iterative RL aims to train an LLM that generates a human-like reasoning process. Initially, it involves collecting high-quality data from various reasoning tasks, such as mathematical problem-solving and code generation. This data is then used to fine-tune a pre-trained LLM as a cold start. This phase is designed to equip the LLM with basic reasoning capabilities, preventing linguistically confused or nonsensical reasoning paths from being sampled during the following RL phase.
    \item After the cold start phase, large-scale RL is employed on the reasoning task. During this phase, rule-based rewards (i.e., format checking and answer verification) are utilized to optimize the reasoning process continuously. By doing so, the model learns longer and more reasonable reasoning paths, progressively enhancing its capacity to tackle complex reasoning tasks.
    \item While the model has learned how to generate reasoning paths through large-scale RL, it often produces outputs with poor readability. This can mainly be attributed to the large-scale RL phase, which does not focus on optimizing the readability of the reasoning paths but instead solely on format correctness and answer accuracy. To address this issue, the third phase involves using rejection sampling to further enhance the readability of outputs. More specifically, multiple outputs are sampled from the model trained in the previous phase across various tasks such as mathematical reasoning, code generation, and question answering. A reward model then selects the best outputs, as discussed in Section \ref{sec:BoN-sampling}. These selected outputs are used to train the model using SFT, which aims to refine its performance by aligning it more closely with human-like reasoning.
    \item In the final phase, multi-task RL is implemented to ensure broader generalization and maintain high performance across tasks beyond reasoning. The process involves training the model using RL on various tasks against a general reward model.
\end{itemize}


An interesting issue arises with this design of iterative RL: why is RL aimed at enhancing reasoning capabilities placed at the initial phase rather than at the end? This is partly because the rewards for the reasoning task, which are inherently more stable as described in Section \ref{sec:lightweight-reward-methods}, are well-suited for large-scale RL compared to traditional reward models. Furthermore, the reasoning capabilities could be applicable across many tasks, allowing for large-scale learning to boost performance in subsequent multi-task learning. We consider that this foundational enhancement in reasoning capabilities may contribute to the observed robust performance across various tasks, even without the use of labeled data in later phases. In this case, large-scale RL could be viewed as an approach to continued pre-training.

Since the optimization objective of each phase is different, the design of iterative RL can also be analyzed and understood from the perspective of multi-objective optimization \citep{wang-etal:2024hybrid}. In the context of multi-objective optimization, iterative RL for LLMs can be likened to interactive methods where the solution process is iterative, and preferences are actively defined and refined by the decision-maker during the search for the most preferred solutions \citep{miettinen-etal:2008introduction,deb-etal:2016multi}. More specifically, in this scenario, RL can be seen as a decision-maker, iteratively refining and enhancing the different capabilities of the LLM across different phases.

\subsection{Large-scale Reinforcement Learning}
\label{sec:large-sclae-rl}

While test-time scaling is instrumental in exploring more effective reasoning paths, its potential is restricted if the model has not learned to generate high-quality reasoning paths. In other words, in practice, test-time scaling struggles to achieve desired outcomes without foundational reasoning ability, no matter how extensive it is \citep{yuan-etal:2023scaling,zeng-etal:2025revisiting}. Consequently, there has been a growing research interest in training LLMs specifically to develop reasoning abilities that mimic human-like processes. A straightforward approach is to use annotated reasoning data to train the LLM through SFT. However, a significant challenge in this approach is the high cost of annotations, especially since annotating detailed step-by-step reasoning paths is significantly more cost-intensive than annotating SFT data in other tasks like machine translation and summarization.

Another more advanced approach is to utilize large-scale RL, transitioning from human-annotated to self-reinforced learning processes. Unlike the RL used as a fine-tuning method discussed in Section \ref{sec:example-using-rl-training-llms}, which typically involves training for a few dozen or hundreds of steps at a small scale, this approach employs it on a larger scale with rewards to break free from the limitation of supervised reasoning data. This approach has enabled the development of robust reasoning models, such as OpenAI-o1 \citep{openai:2024learning}, DeepSeek-R1 \citep{guo:2025deepseek}, and Kimi-1.5 \citep{kimi-team:2025kimi}. Notably, DeepSeek-R1-Zero was able to develop a robust reasoning model by applying large-scale RL to a pre-trained LLM without the need for any annotated reasoning data. However, despite its successes, large-scale RL is not easy and introduces unique challenges that are not present at smaller scales, as follows.

One is that large-scale RL requires a highly generalizable reward model. As the scale of training increases, the model is trained on broader data, necessitating a reward model capable of effectively generalizing across this varied data. On the other hand, the extensive scope of training introduces significant variability in the model, leading to considerable changes in sampling behaviours. Consequently, it is crucial to ensure that the reward model possesses robust generalization capabilities to prevent overfitting and maintain the effectiveness of the learning process. There are several methods to achieve this. For example, \citet{guo:2025deepseek} incorporated rule-based rewards, as discussed in Section \ref{sec:lightweight-reward-methods}, such as format checking and answer verification in reasoning scenarios, which can provide a stable reward throughout the learning process. This suggests that in certain RL scenarios, prioritizing rule-based rewards may be beneficial if they can effectively describe human preferences. \citet{yuan-etal:2024selfrewarding} introduced a self-rewarding framework that dynamically updates the reward model based on the currently optimized policy model so that this reward model can effectively evaluate the behaviours from the current policy model.

Another is that large-scale RL might be constrained by the reference model. To prevent the policy model from deviating too far from its initial state, an SFT LLM is typically employed as the reference model, adding a penalty that restricts updates to ensure the policy model operates within a desirable behaviour region. However, reliance on a static reference model can limit the adaptability and innovation potential of the policy model in large-scale RL. A common strategy to mitigate this issue is to periodically update the reference model to better align with the improving capabilities and knowledge of the policy model, thus striking a balance between keeping stability and fostering adaptiveness during the training process \citep{gorbatovski-etal:2024learn}.


\subsection{On-Policy Distillation}
While large-scale RL has shown strong potential for improving model capabilities, it often relies on large amounts of verifiable training data, where the correctness of model outputs can be reliably evaluated. Several approaches have been explored to relax this requirement. A straightforward solution is to construct proxy rewards from the model's own outputs. For example, majority voting can be used to derive pseudo-gold answers for computing accuracy-based rewards, while uncertainty-related signals such as output entropy can also serve as reward signals. However, these approaches largely depend on the model's own capabilities and may provide unreliable supervision. A more promising direction is \textit{on-policy distillation} (OPD), which introduces supervision from a stronger teacher model while preserving on-policy exploration of the student model\footnote{In standard knowledge distillation settings, we typically refer to the ``smaller'' model as the \textit{student model} and the ``larger'' model as the \textit{teacher model}.}. The key idea is to let the student model generate reasoning trajectories on-policy and then use the teacher model to provide token-level distributional supervision at the states actually visited by the student. 

Compared with conventional offline distillation, OPD adopts a simple but important design: the training samples are generated online by the current student policy rather than collected offline from the teacher model. This design mainly addresses the distribution mismatch in offline distillation, where the student is trained on teacher-generated trajectories that may differ from the states it encounters during its own inference. In contrast, OPD provides teacher supervision directly on the states visited by the student, allowing the teacher to correct the student's actual behaviors. For example, consider a mathematical reasoning problem where the student has already generated the partial trajectory ``3x+7=22 $\rightarrow$ 3x=15''. At this student-generated state, the teacher model can directly provide token-level supervision that assigns a higher probability to generating ``x=5'' next, rather than an incorrect continuation such as ``x=4''. In this way, OPD teaches the student how to continue correctly from the states it actually visits, rather than only imitating complete trajectories generated by the teacher model.


\begin{figure*}[!t]
    \centering
    \resizebox{\linewidth}{!}{
    \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{section5/Figures/opd.png}}
    \caption{
    Illustration of OPD \citep{agarwal-etal:onpolicy}. The student model generates trajectories from its current policy, while the teacher model provides next-token distributional supervision at the states visited by the student. The divergence between the teacher and student distributions is used to construct dense token-level rewards for optimizing the student model.}
    \label{fig:opd-implementation}
\end{figure*}


This implementation of OPD is relatively simple, as illustrated in Figure~\ref{fig:opd-implementation}. Given an input $\mathbf{x}$, we first sample an output $\mathbf{y}=\{y_1,\ldots,y_n\}$ from the current student model $\mathrm{Pr}_{\theta}(\cdot|\mathbf{x})$. For each token position $i$, the prefix $(\mathbf{x},\mathbf{y}_{<i})$ denotes a state actually visited by the student model. We then feed the same state into the teacher model $\mathrm{Pr}_{\mathrm{tea}}$ and obtain its probability distribution over the next token. The student model is optimized to match this teacher distribution. This OPD objective can defined as:
\begin{eqnarray}
\mathcal{L}_{\mathrm{opd}}(\theta) = \mathbb{E}_{\mathbf{x}\sim S_x,\,
\mathbf{y}\sim \mathrm{Pr}_{\theta}(\cdot|\mathbf{x})}
\left[
\frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} \mathrm{KL} \left(
\mathrm{Pr}_{\mathrm{tea}}(\cdot|\mathbf{x},\mathbf{y}_{<i}) \|
\mathrm{Pr}_{\theta}(\cdot|\mathbf{x},\mathbf{y}_{<i}) \right)
\right]
\end{eqnarray}

Here, the KL divergence measures the discrepancy between the teacher and student distributions at each student-visited state. For optimization, we can treat the negative KL divergence at each token position as a token-level reward, such that a smaller discrepancy between the student and teacher distributions yields a higher reward. Based on these dense token-level rewards, standard RL algorithms can then be directly applied to optimize the student model.
From the perspective of reward construction, OPD provides more fine-grained supervision than conventional outcome-based approaches, which assign rewards only after the complete response is generated. In contrast, OPD provides token-level feedback throughout generation, making the supervision denser. However, this benefit comes with additional computational cost. The teacher model must evaluate student-generated states and produce next-token distributions during training, which requires extra forward passes and increases both memory and computation overhead.

