author={Silver, David and Singh, Satinder and Precup, Doina and Sutton, Richard S},
journal={Artificial intelligence},
volume={299},
pages={103535},
year={2021},
publisher={Elsevier}
}
@article{kimi-team:kimi,
title={Kimi k2: Open agentic intelligence},
author={Team, Kimi and Bai, Yifan and Bao, Yiping and Charles, Y and Chen, Cheng and Chen, Guanduo and Chen, Haiting and Chen, Huarong and Chen, Jiahao and Chen, Ningxin and others},
Reinforcement learning (RL) is an interdisciplinary field, and has its origins in both psychology and optimal control. Over the years, the concept has been further developed and formalized within the realms of artificial intelligence and machine learning. The basic idea is that an agent learns to make decisions by receiving feedback on its actions from the environment. This approach is very general and applies to a wide range of problems, from playing complex games like chess and Go to controlling autonomous vehicles.
Reinforcement learning (RL) is an interdisciplinary field, and has its origins in both psychology and optimal control. Over the years, the concept has been further developed and formalized within the realms of artificial intelligence and machine learning. The basic idea is that an agent learns to make decisions by receiving feedback on its actions from the environment. This approach is very general and applies to a wide range of problems, from playing complex games like chess and Go to controlling autonomous vehicles.
A recent breakthrough is the large-scale application of RL in the field of natural language processing (NLP), in particular in the development of large language models (LLMs). For example, RL has been widely considered an effective way of aligning pre-trained LLMs with human preferences and values \citep{christiano-etal:2017deep}. One such method, called reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF), forms the basis for the development of advanced LLMs like OpenAI's GPT-4. More recently, RL has shown great promise in enabling LLMs to perform complex reasoning \citep{openai:2024learning,deepseek:2025r1}. As a result, interest in NLP has exploded. There have been many, many conference papers discussing RL in LLMs, and even more in the past few months. The research community is highly enthusiastic, and many in the field are anticipating a new turning point where large-scale RL algorithms could further advance AI.
A recent breakthrough is the large-scale application of RL in the field of natural language processing (NLP), in particular in the development of large language models (LLMs). For example, RL has been widely considered an effective way of aligning pre-trained LLMs with human preferences and values \citep{christiano-etal:2017deep}. One such method, called reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF), forms the basis for the development of advanced LLMs like OpenAI's GPT-4. More recently, RL has shown great promise in enabling LLMs to perform complex reasoning \citep{openai:2024learning,deepseek:2025r1,kimi-team:kimi}. As a result, interest in NLP has exploded. There have been many, many conference papers discussing RL in LLMs, and even more in the past few months. The research community is highly enthusiastic, and many in the field are anticipating a new turning point where large-scale RL algorithms could further advance AI. This trend is further strengthened by the rise of LLM-based agents, where models must learn from interaction and experience to make effective decisions in dynamic environments. From this perspective, RL is becoming a key technique for building more capable and adaptive intelligent systems. This view closely echoes the ``Reward Is Enough'' hypothesis proposed by \citet{silver-etal:reward}:
\begin{quote}
``Intelligence, and its associated abilities, can be understood as subserving the maximisation of reward by an agent acting in its environment.''
\end{quote}
This hypothesis highlights why RL is particularly relevant to the next stage of LLM development: instead of learning only from static supervision, models can acquire increasingly complex capabilities through large-scale experience and rewards.
However, RL was not so popular in the long history of NLP, and the field has just begun to explore its potential. Although applying RL to LLMs seems a natural choice for machine learning researchers, it introduces many new concepts to the NLP community, which has traditionally been dominated by supervised learning methodologies. As NLP researchers, when we attended presentations on LLMs, we often heard other researchers discuss advanced RL techniques, such as “use a value function to estimate the expected cumulative reward” or “learn a policy via PPO”. It seems that these techniques are so simple that presenters do not even need to give any explanation. But we were lost when seeing the math of RL, such as all those expectation signs, as well as the names of various algorithms that we are unfamiliar with.
However, RL was not so popular in the long history of NLP, and the field has just begun to explore its potential. Although applying RL to LLMs seems a natural choice for machine learning researchers, it introduces many new concepts to the NLP community, which has traditionally been dominated by supervised learning methodologies. As NLP researchers, when we attended presentations on LLMs, we often heard other researchers discuss advanced RL techniques, such as ``use a value function to estimate the expected cumulative reward'', ``learn a policy via PPO'', or ``we can use GRPO to solve this problem''. It seems that these techniques are so simple that presenters do not even need to give any explanation. But we were lost when seeing the math of RL, such as all those expectation signs, as well as the names of various algorithms that we are unfamiliar with.
Of course, we'd like to learn about RL, which appears straightforward. However, common RL textbooks, such as \citet{Sutton-and-Barto:2018RL}'s book, are mostly based on classic robotics or control problems. This makes it difficult to align the concepts of RL with those of LLMs. On the other hand, most LLM literature lacks an in-depth discussion of RL techniques, often omitting related details. As a result, we find ourselves in an awkward middle ground between RL and LLMs, struggling to bridge the two fields.
Of course, we'd like to learn about RL, which appears straightforward. However, common RL textbooks, such as \citet{Sutton-and-Barto:2018RL}'s book, are mostly based on classic robotics or control problems. This makes it difficult to align the concepts of RL with those of LLMs. On the other hand, most LLM literature lacks an in-depth discussion of RL techniques, often omitting related details. As a result, we find ourselves in an awkward middle ground between RL and LLMs, struggling to bridge the two fields.
The aim of this paper is to provide a comprehensive introduction to RL from the perspective of LLMs. We begin by introducing basic concepts and algorithms of RL using the LLM language. In particular, we illustrate their application through an example of training LLMs, making the concepts more accessible. We then discuss a series of refinements to the basic RL framework for LLM alignment, including advanced reward modeling, improved advantage estimation, efficient sampling, and direct LLM optimization without RL. Furthermore, we discuss how to apply RL techniques to LLM reasoning. These methods are closely related to recent LLMs, such as OpenAI o1/o3 and DeepSeek R1, which adopt large-scale RL and test-time scaling to significantly advance their reasoning abilities. In addition, we discuss applications of RL to multimodal LLMs to demonstrate how RL can be adapted to various problems. Finally, we conclude by outlining promising future research directions and discussing relevant systems and datasets.
The aim of this paper is to provide a comprehensive introduction to RL from the perspective of LLM research. We begin by introducing the basic concepts and algorithms of RL using terminology familiar to LLM researchers, and illustrate them through a concrete example of training an LLM. We then discuss recent advances in RL for LLMs, including improved reward modeling, advantage estimation, training efficiency, and policy optimization. Beyond standard LLM alignment, we further introduce how RL is applied to enhance reasoning capabilities, support long-horizon decision-making in LLM-based agents, and optimize multimodal understanding and generation models. Finally, we summarize promising future directions and provide an overview of commonly used systems and datasets.
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ In this paper, we have introduced the fundamental concepts of RL from the perspe
...
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ In this paper, we have introduced the fundamental concepts of RL from the perspe
While RL has become well established in LLM training and has achieved remarkable results, several promising directions remain for future exploration:
While RL has become well established in LLM training and has achieved remarkable results, several promising directions remain for future exploration:
\begin{itemize}
\begin{itemize}
\item\textbf{RL for pre-training.} Most existing studies apply RL during the post-training stage, while its role in large-scale pre-training remains relatively underexplored. One promising direction is to investigate how reward-driven learning can be integrated into pre-training to shape model capabilities earlier in the training pipeline. Recent studies have begun to demonstrate the feasibility of this direction \citep{dong-etal:rl}, but how to design maintain stable optimization at pre-training scale remains an open challenge.
\item\textbf{RL for pre-training.} Most existing studies focus on applying RL during post-training, while its role in pre-training remains less explored. Extending reward-driven learning to the pre-training stage may provide a way to shape model capabilities earlier in the training process. Recent studies have begun to demonstrate the potential of this direction \citep{dong-etal:rl}, but achieving stable and scalable optimization at pre-training scale remains an important challenge.
\item\textbf{More efficient RL training.} Recent methods, such as GRPO, have simplified RL training by removing components such as the critic model. However, RL still relies heavily on online sampling, which introduces substantial computational and time costs. Improving sampling efficiency and reducing the overall training cost therefore remain important directions for future research.
\item\textbf{More efficient RL training.} Recent methods, such as GRPO, have simplified RL training by removing components such as the critic model. However, RL still relies heavily on online sampling, which introduces substantial computational and time costs. Improving sampling efficiency and reducing the overall training cost therefore remain important directions for future research.
